History of classic music
 |
Medieval (c.1150 - c.1400)
Gregorian chant and plainsong which are monodic (i.e. written as one musical line) gradually developed during the 11th to 13th centuries into organum (i.e. two or three lines moving simultaneously but independently, therefore almost inadvertently representing the beginnings of harmony). Organum was, however, initially rather stifled by rigid rules governing melody and rhythm, which led ultimately to the so-called Ars Nova period of the 14th century, principally represented by the composers de Vitry, Machaut, and Landini.
Renaissance (c.1400 - c.1600)
There is obvious new delight in textural variety and contrast, so that, for example, a particular section of text might be enhanced by a vocal part dropping out momentarily, only to return again at a special moment of emphasis. The four most influential composers of the fifteenth century were Dunstable, Ockeghem, Despres and Dufay.
The second half of the 16th century witnessed the beginnings of the tradition which many music lovers readily associate with the normal feel of 'classical' music. Gradually, composers moved away from the modal system of harmony which had predominated for over 300 years (and still sounds somewhat archaic to some modern ears), towards the organisation of their work into major and minor scales, thereby imparting the strong sensation of each piece having a definite tonal centre or 'key'.
This was also something of a golden period for choral composition as a seemingly endless flow of a capella (unaccompanied) masses, motets, anthems, psalms and madrigals flowed from the pens of the masters of the age. In addition, instrumental music came into its own for the first time, especially keyboard music in the form of fantasias, variations, and dance movements (galliards, pavanes etc.). Composers of particular note include Dowland, Tallis, Byrd, Gibbons, Frescobaldi, Palestrina, Victoria, L
Baroque (c.1600 - c.1750)
Until about 1700, the old modes still exerted themselves from time to time by colouring certain melodic lines or chord progressions, but from the beginning of the 18th century the modern harmonic system based upon the major and minor scales was effectively pan-European. Choral music no longer dominated, and as composers turned more and more to writing idiomatic instrumental works for ensembles of increasing colour and variety, so 'classical' music (as opposed to 'popular') gradually began to work its way into the very fabric of society, being played outdoors at dinner parties or special functions (e.g. Handel's Water Music), or as a spectacle in the form of opera. On a purely domestic level, every wealthy lady would have a spinet to play, and at meal-times the large and rich houses would employ musicians to play what was popularly called Tafelmusik in Germany, of which Telemann was perhaps the most famous composer.
Of the many 17th century composers who paved the way for this popular explosion of 'classical' music, the following were outstanding: Monteverdi, Corelli, Alessandro Scarlatti, Schutz, Buxtehude, Purcell and Lully. Yet, the most popular composers of the period, indeed those who seem to define by their very names the sound of Baroque music at its most colourful and sophisticated are Johann Sebastian Bach, Handel, Telemann, Rameau, François Couperin, Domenico Scarlatti, and Vivaldi, all of them at their creative peak during the first half of the 18th century.
Classical (c.1750 - c.1830)
The seeds of the Classical age were sown by a number of composers whose names are now largely forgotten such as Schobert and Honnauer (both Germans largely active in Paris), as well as more historically respected names, including Gluck, Boccherini and at least three of Johann Sebastian Bach's sons: Carl Phillip Emmanuel, Wilhelm Friedmann and Johann Christian (the so-called 'London' Bach). They were representative of a period which is variously described as rococo or galante, the former implying a gradual move away from the artifice of the High Baroque, the latter an entirely novel style based on symmetry and sensibility, which came to dominate the music of the latter half of the 18th century through two composers of extraordinary significance: Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Ama
Early Romantic (c.1830 - c.1860)
The Romantic era was the golden age of the virtuoso, where the most fiendishly difficult music would be performed with nonchalant ease, and the most innocuous theme in a composition would be developed at great length for the enjoyment of the adoring audience. The emotional range of music during this period was considerably widened, as was its harmonic vocabulary and the range and number of instruments which might be called upon to play it. Music often had a 'programme' or story-line attached to it, sometimes of a tragic or despairing nature, occasionally representing such natural phenomena as rivers or galloping horses. The next hundred years would find composers either embracing whole-heartedly the ideals of Romanticism, or in some way reacting against them.
Of the early Romantic composers, two Nationalists deserve special mention, the Russian Glinka (of Russlan and Ludmilla fame) and the Bohemian Smetana (composer of the popular symphonic poem Vltava or 'The Moldau'). However, the six leading composers of the age were undoubtedly Berlioz, Chopin, Mendelssohn, Schum
Late Romantic (c.1860 - c.1920)
History of classical music traditions
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the academic study of the history of music, see Music history.
Music is found in every known culture, past and present,
varying wildly between times and places. Since all people of the world,
including the most isolated tribal groups, have a form of music, it may
be concluded that music is likely to have been present in the ancestral
population prior to the dispersal of humans around the world.
Consequently music may have been in existence for at least 50,000 years
and the first music may have been invented in Africa and then evolved to
become a fundamental constituent of human life.[1]A culture's music is influenced by all other aspects of that culture, including social and economic organization and experience, climate, and access to technology. The emotions and ideas that music expresses, the situations in which music is played and listened to, and the attitudes toward music players and composers all vary between regions and periods. "Music history" is the distinct subfield of musicology and history which studies music (particularly Western art music) from a chronological perspective.
Contents |
Music History eras
| Musical eras | |
| Prehistoric | |
| Ancient | (before AD 500) |
| Early | (500 – 1760) |
| Common practice | (1600 – 1900) |
| Modern and contemporary | (1900 – present) |
Prehistoric music
Main article: Prehistoric music
Prehistoric music, once more commonly called primitive music, is the name given to all music produced in preliterate cultures (prehistory), beginning somewhere in very late geological history. Prehistoric music is followed by ancient music in most of Europe (1500 BCE) and later musics in subsequent European-influenced areas, but still exists in isolated areas.Prehistoric music thus technically includes all of the world's music that has existed before the advent of any currently extant historical sources concerning that music, for example, traditional Native American music of preliterate tribes and Australian Aboriginal music. However, it is more common to refer to the "prehistoric" music of non-European continents – especially that which still survives – as folk, indigenous or traditional music. The origin of music is unknown as it occurred prior to the advent of recorded history. Some suggest that the origin of music likely stems from naturally occurring sounds and rhythms. Human music may echo these phenomena using patterns, repetition and tonality. Even today, some cultures have certain instances of their music intending to imitate natural sounds. In some instances, this feature is related to shamanistic beliefs or practice.[2][3] It may also serve entertainment (game)[4][5] or practical (luring animals in hunt)[4] functions.
It is probable that the first musical instrument was the human voice itself, which can make a vast array of sounds, from singing, humming and whistling through to clicking, coughing and yawning. In 2008 archaeologists discovered a bone flute in the Hohle Fels cave near Ulm, Germany.[6][7][8] The five-holed flute has a V-shaped mouthpiece and is made from a vulture wing bone. The oldest known wooden pipes were discovered near Greystones, Ireland, in 2004. A wood-lined pit contained a group of six flutes made from yew wood, between 30 and 50 cm long, tapered at one end, but without any finger holes. They may once have been strapped together.[9][dead link]
Biblical period
Main article: History of music in the biblical period
c. 960, Constantinople
Music and theatre scholars studying the history and anthropology of Semitic and early Judeo-Christian culture, have also discovered common links between theatrical and musical activity in the classical cultures of the Hebrews with those of the later cultures of the Greeks and Romans. The common area of performance is found in a "social phenomenon called litany," a form of prayer consisting of a series of invocations or supplications. The Journal of Religion and Theatre notes that among the earliest forms of litany, "Hebrew litany was accompanied by a rich musical tradition:"[11]
- "While Genesis 4.21 identifies Jubal as the “father of all such as handle the harp and pipe,” the Pentateuch is nearly silent about the practice and instruction of music in the early life of Israel. Then, in I Samuel 10 and the texts which follow, a curious thing happens. “One finds in the biblical text,” writes Alfred Sendrey, “a sudden and unexplained upsurge of large choirs and orchestras, consisting of thoroughly organized and trained musical groups, which would be virtually inconceivable without lengthy, methodical preparation.” This has led some scholars to believe that the prophet Samuel was the patriarch of a school which taught not only prophets and holy men, but also sacred-rite musicians. This public music school, perhaps the earliest in recorded history, was not restricted to a priestly class--which is how the shepherd boy David appears on the scene as a minstrel to King Saul."[11]
Ancient music
Main article: Ancient music
The prehistoric era is considered to have ended with the development
of writing, and with it, by definition, prehistoric music. "Ancient
music" is the name given to the music that followed. The "oldest known
song" was written in cuneiform,
dating to 4,000 years ago from Ur. It was deciphered by Prof. Anne
Draffkorn Kilmer (University of Calif. at Berkeley), and was
demonstrated to be composed in harmonies of thirds, like ancient gymel,[12] and also was written using a Pythagorean tuning of the diatonic scale.
The oldest surviving example of a complete musical composition,
including musical notation, from anywhere in the world, is the Seikilos epitaph.Double pipes, such as those used by the ancient Greeks, and ancient bagpipes, as well as a review of ancient drawings on vases and walls, etc., and ancient writings (such as in Aristotle, Problems, Book XIX.12) which described musical techniques of the time, indicate polyphony. One pipe in the aulos pairs (double flutes) likely served as a drone or "keynote," while the other played melodic passages. Instruments, such as the seven holed flute and various types of stringed instruments have been recovered from the Indus valley civilization archaeological sites.[13]
Indian classical music (marga) can be found from the scriptures of the Hindu tradition, the Vedas. Samaveda, one of the four vedas, describes music at length.
Ravanahatha(ravanhatta, rawanhattha, ravanastron or ravana hasta veena) is a bowed fiddle popular in Western India. It is believed to have originated among the Hela civilisation of Sri Lanka in the time of King Ravana.This string instrument has been recognised as one of the oldest string instrument in the world history .
The history of musical development in Iran (Persian music) dates back to the prehistoric era. The great legendary king, Jamshid, is credited with the invention of music. Music in Iran can be traced back to the days of the Elamite Empire (2,500-644 B.C). Fragmentary documents from various periods of the country's history establish that the ancient Persians possessed an elaborate musical culture. The Sassanid period (A.D. 226-651), in particular, has left us ample evidence pointing to the existence of a lively musical life in Persia. The names of some important musicians such as Barbod, Nakissa and Ramtin, and titles of some of their works have survived.
The term Early music era may also refer to contemporary but traditional or folk music, including Asian music, Persian music, music of India, Jewish music, Greek music, Roman music, the music of Mesopotamia, the music of Egypt, and Muslim music.
Early music
Main article: Early music
Early music is a general term used to describe music in the European classical tradition from after the fall of the Roman Empire, in 476 AD, until the end of the Baroque era
in the middle of the 18th century. Music within this enormous span of
time was extremely diverse, encompassing multiple cultural traditions
within a wide geographic area; many of the cultural groups out of which
medieval Europe developed already had musical traditions, about which
little is known. What unified these cultures in the Middle Ages was the Roman Catholic Church,
and its music served as the focal point for musical development for the
first thousand years of this period. Very little non-Christian music
from this period survived, due to its suppression by the Church and the
absence of music notation; however, folk music of modern Europe probably
has roots at least as far back as the Middle Ages[citation needed].Western art music
| Periods of Western art music | |
|---|---|
| Early | |
| Medieval | (500–1400) |
| Renaissance | (1400–1600) |
| Baroque | (1600–1760) |
| Common practice | |
| Baroque | (1600–1760) |
| Classical | (1730–1820) |
| Romantic | (1815–1910) |
| Modern and contemporary | |
| Modern | (1890–1930) |
| 20th century | (1900–2000) |
| Contemporary | (1975–present) |
| 21st century | (2000–present) |
Main article: Western art music
Medieval music
Main article: Medieval music
While musical life was undoubtedly rich in the early Medieval
era, as attested by artistic depictions of instruments, writings about
music, and other records, the only repertory of music which has survived
from before 800 to the present day is the plainsong liturgical music of the Roman Catholic Church, the largest part of which is called Gregorian chant. Pope Gregory I,
who gave his name to the musical repertory and may himself have been a
composer, is usually claimed to be the originator of the musical portion
of the liturgy in its present form, though the sources giving details
on his contribution date from more than a hundred years after his death.
Many scholars believe that his reputation has been exaggerated by
legend. Most of the chant repertory was composed anonymously in the
centuries between the time of Gregory and Charlemagne.During the 9th century several important developments took place. First, there was a major effort by the Church to unify the many chant traditions, and suppress many of them in favor of the Gregorian liturgy. Second, the earliest polyphonic music was sung, a form of parallel singing known as organum. Third, and of greatest significance for music history, notation was reinvented after a lapse of about five hundred years, though it would be several more centuries before a system of pitch and rhythm notation evolved having the precision and flexibility that modern musicians take for granted.
Several schools of polyphony flourished in the period after 1100: the St. Martial school of organum, the music of which was often characterized by a swiftly moving part over a single sustained line; the Notre Dame school of polyphony, which included the composers Léonin and Pérotin, and which produced the first music for more than two parts around 1200; the musical melting-pot of Santiago de Compostela in Galicia, a pilgrimage destination and site where musicians from many traditions came together in the late Middle Ages, the music of whom survives in the Codex Calixtinus; and the English school, the music of which survives in the Worcester Fragments and the Old Hall Manuscript. Alongside these schools of sacred music a vibrant tradition of secular song developed, as exemplified in the music of the troubadours, trouvères and Minnesänger. Much of the later secular music of the early Renaissance evolved from the forms, ideas, and the musical aesthetic of the troubadours, courtly poets and itinerant musicians, whose culture was largely exterminated during the Albigensian Crusade in the early 13th century.
Forms of sacred music which developed during the late 13th century included the motet, conductus, discant, and clausulae. One unusual development was the Geisslerlieder, the music of wandering bands of flagellants during two periods: the middle of the 13th century (until they were suppressed by the Church); and the period during and immediately following the Black Death, around 1350, when their activities were vividly recorded and well-documented with notated music. Their music mixed folk song styles with penitential or apocalyptic texts. The 14th century in European music history is dominated by the style of the ars nova, which by convention is grouped with the medieval era in music, even though it had much in common with early Renaissance ideals and aesthetics. Much of the surviving music of the time is secular, and tends to use the formes fixes: the ballade, the virelai, the lai, the rondeau, which correspond to poetic forms of the same names. Most pieces in these forms are for one to three voices, likely with instrumental accompaniment: famous composers include Guillaume de Machaut and Francesco Landini.
Renaissance music
Main article: Renaissance music
The beginning of the Renaissance in music is not as clearly marked as
the beginning of the Renaissance in the other arts, and unlike in the
other arts, it did not begin in Italy, but in northern Europe, specifically in the area currently comprising central and northern France, the Netherlands, and Belgium. The style of the Burgundian composers, as the first generation of the Franco-Flemish school is known, was at first a reaction against the excessive complexity and mannered style of the late 14th century ars subtilior, and contained clear, singable melody and balanced polyphony in all voices. The most famous composers of the Burgundian school in the mid-15th century are Guillaume Dufay, Gilles Binchois, and Antoine Busnois.By the middle of the 15th century, composers and singers from the Low Countries and adjacent areas began to spread across Europe, especially into Italy, where they were employed by the papal chapel and the aristocratic patrons of the arts (such as the Medici, the Este, and the Sforza families). They carried their style with them: smooth polyphony which could be adapted for sacred or secular use as appropriate. Principal forms of sacred musical composition at the time were the mass, the motet, and the laude; secular forms included the chanson, the frottola, and later the madrigal.
The invention of printing had an immense influence on the dissemination of musical styles, and along with the movement of the Franco-Flemish musicians, contributed to the establishment of the first truly international style in European music since the unification of Gregorian chant under Charlemagne. Composers of the middle generation of the Franco-Flemish school included Johannes Ockeghem, who wrote music in a contrapuntally complex style, with varied texture and an elaborate use of canonical devices; Jacob Obrecht, one of the most famous composers of masses in the last decades of the 15th century; and Josquin des Prez, probably the most famous composer in Europe before Palestrina, and who during the 16th century was renowned as one of the greatest artists in any form. Music in the generation after Josquin explored increasing complexity of counterpoint; possibly the most extreme expression is in the music of Nicolas Gombert, whose contrapuntal complexities influenced early instrumental music, such as the canzona and the ricercar, ultimately culminating in Baroque fugal forms.
Most parts of Europe had active and well-differentiated musical traditions by late in the century. In England, composers such as Thomas Tallis and William Byrd wrote sacred music in a style similar to that written on the continent, while an active group of home-grown madrigalists adapted the Italian form for English tastes: famous composers included Thomas Morley, John Wilbye and Thomas Weelkes. Spain developed instrumental and vocal styles of its own, with Tomás Luis de Victoria writing refined music similar to that of Palestrina, and numerous other composers writing for the new guitar. Germany cultivated polyphonic forms built on the Protestant chorales, which replaced the Roman Catholic Gregorian Chant as a basis for sacred music, and imported the style of the Venetian school (the appearance of which defined the start of the Baroque era there). In addition, German composers wrote enormous amounts of organ music, establishing the basis for the later Baroque organ style which culminated in the work of J.S. Bach. France developed a unique style of musical diction known as musique mesurée, used in secular chansons, with composers such as Guillaume Costeley and Claude Le Jeune prominent in the movement.
One of the most revolutionary movements in the era took place in Florence in the 1570s and 1580s, with the work of the Florentine Camerata, who ironically had a reactionary intent: dissatisfied with what they saw as contemporary musical depravities, their goal was to restore the music of the ancient Greeks. Chief among them were Vincenzo Galilei, the father of the astronomer, and Giulio Caccini. The fruits of their labors was a declamatory melodic singing style known as monody, and a corresponding staged dramatic form: a form known today as opera. The first operas, written around 1600, also define the end of the Renaissance and the beginning of the Baroque eras.
Music prior to 1600 was modal rather than tonal. Several theoretical developments late in the 16th century, such as the writings on scales on modes by Gioseffo Zarlino and Franchinus Gaffurius, led directly to the development of common practice tonality. The major and minor scales began to predominate over the old church modes, a feature which was at first most obvious at cadential points in compositions, but gradually became pervasive. Music after 1600, beginning with the tonal music of the Baroque era, is often referred to as belonging to the common practice period.
Baroque music
Main article: Baroque music
Instrumental music became dominant in the Baroque, and most major music forms were defined. Counterpoint
was one of the major forces in both the instrumental and the vocal
music of the period. Although a strong religious musical tradition
continued, secular music came to the fore with the development of the sonata, the concerto, and the concerto grosso.Much Baroque music was designed for improvisation, with a figured bass provided by the composer for the performer to flesh out and ornament. The keyboard, particularly the harpsichord, was a dominant instrument, and the beginnings of well temperament opened up the possibilities of playing in all keys and of modulation.
Classical music era
Main article: Classical period (music)
The music of the Classical period is characterized by homophonic texture, or an obvious melody with accompaniment.
These new melodies tended to be almost voice-like and singable,
allowing composers to actually replace singers as the focus of the
music. Instrumental music therefore quickly replaced opera and other sung forms (such as oratorio)
as the favorite of the musical audience and the epitome of great
composition. However, opera did not disappear: during the classical
period, several composers began producing operas for the general public
in their native languages (previous operas were generally in Italian).
The early Classical period was ushered in by the Mannheim School, which included such composers as Johann Stamitz, Franz Xaver Richter, Carl Stamitz, and Christian Cannabich. It exerted a profound influence on Joseph Haydn and, through him, on all subsequent European music. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was the central figure of the Classical period, and his phenomenal and varied output in all genres defines our perception of the period. Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Schubert were transitional composers, leading into the Romantic period, with their expansion of existing genres, forms, and even functions of music.
Romantic music
Main article: Romantic music
In the Romantic period, music became more expressive and emotional,
expanding to encompass literature, art, and philosophy. Famous early
Romantic composers include Schumann, Chopin, Mendelssohn, Bellini, and Berlioz. The late 19th century saw a dramatic expansion in the size of the orchestra, and in the role of concerts as part of urban society. Famous composers from the second half of the century include Johann Strauss II, Brahms, Liszt, Čajkovskij, Verdi, and Wagner. Between 1890 and 1910, a third wave of composers including Dvořák, Mahler, Richard Strauss, Puccini, and Sibelius
built on the work of middle Romantic composers to create even more
complex – and often much longer – musical works. A prominent mark of
late 19th century music is its nationalistic fervor, as exemplified by
such figures as Dvořák, Sibelius, and Grieg. Other prominent late-century figures include Saint-Saëns, Fauré, Rachmaninoff and Franck.
20th-century music
Main article: 20th-century music
The 20th Century saw a revolution in music listening as the radio
gained popularity worldwide and new media and technologies were
developed to record, capture, reproduce and distribute music. Music
performances became increasingly visual with the broadcast and recording
of music videos and concerts. Music of all kinds also became
increasingly portable. Headphones allowed people sitting next to each
other to listen to entirely different performances or share the same
performance.20th Century music brought a new freedom and wide experimentation with new musical styles and forms that challenged the accepted rules of music of earlier periods. The invention of musical amplification and electronic instruments, especially the synthesizer, in the mid-20th century revolutionized popular music and accelerated the development of new forms of music.
See also: Contemporary classical music and History of sound recording
Classical music
Main article: Classical music
Classical music is a broad, somewhat imprecise term, referring to
music produced in, or rooted in the traditions of art, ecclesiastical
and concert music. A music is classical if it includes some of the
following features: a learned tradition, support from the church or
government, or greater cultural capital. Classical music is also
described as complex, lasting, transcendent, and abstract. In many
cultures a classical tradition coexisted with traditional or popular
music, occasionally for thousands of years, and with different levels of
mutual borrowing with the parallel tradition.Byzantium
Main article: Byzantine music
Byzantine music
(Greek: Βυζαντινή Μουσική) is the music of the Byzantine Empire
composed to Greek texts as ceremonial, festival, or church music.[1]
Greek and foreign historians agree that the ecclesiastical tones and in
general the whole system of Byzantine music is closely related to the
ancient Greek system.[2] It remains the oldest genre of extant music, of
which the manner of performance and (with increasing accuracy from the
5th century onwards) the names of the composers, and sometimes the
particulars of each musical work's circumstances, are known.Asia
Main article: Asian music
Asian music covers the music cultures of Arabia, Central Asia, East Asia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia.India
Main article: Indian classical music
Indian music is one of the oldest musical traditions in the world.[14] The Indus Valley civilization left sculptures which show dance[15] and musical instruments (some no longer in use), like the seven holed flute. Various types of stringed instruments and drums have been recovered from Harrappa and Mohenjo Daro by excavations carried out by Sir Mortimer Wheeler.[16] The Rigveda has elements of present Indian music, with a musical notation to denote the metre and the mode of chanting.[17] Early Indian musical tradition also speaks of three accents and vocal music known as "Samagan" (Sama meaning melody and Gan meaning to sing).[18] The classical music of India includes two major traditions: the southern Carnatic music and the northern Hindustani classical music. India's classical music tradition is millennia long and remains important to the lives of Indians today as a source of religious inspiration, cultural expression, and entertainment.
Indian classical music (marga) is monophonic, and based on a single melody line or raga rhythmically organized through talas. Carnatic music is largely devotional; the majority of the songs are addressed to the Hindu deities. There are a lot of songs emphasising love and other social issues. In contrast to Carnatic music, Hindustani music was not only influenced by ancient Hindu musical traditions, Vedic philosophy and native Indian sounds but also by the Persian performance practices of the Afghan Mughals. The origins of Indian classical music can be found from the oldest of scriptures, part of the Hindu tradition, the Vedas. Samaveda, one of the four vedas describes music at length.
China
Main article: Chinese classical music
Chinese classical music is the traditional art or court music of
China. It has a long history stretching for more than three thousand
years. It has its own unique systems of musical notation, as well as
musical tuning and pitch, musical instruments and styles or musical
genres. Chinese music is pentatonic-diatonic, having a scale of twelve
notes to an octave (5+7 = 12) as does European-influenced music.Middle East
See also: Arab classical music and Andalusian classical music
Persia
Main article: Persian traditional music
Persian music is the music of Persia and Persian language countries: musiqi, the science and art of music, and muzik, the sound and performance of music (Sakata 1983). See: Music of Iran, Music of Afghanistan, Music of Tajikistan, Music of Uzbekistan.Greece
Main article: Music of Greece
Greek written history extends far back into Ancient Greece, and was a major part of ancient Greek theater.
In ancient Greece, mixed-gender choruses performed for entertainment,
celebration and spiritual reasons. Instruments included the double-reed aulos and the plucked string instrument, the lyre, especially the special kind called a kithara. Music was an important part of education in ancient Greece, and boys were taught music starting at age six.Sources
- ^ Wallin, Nils Lennart; Steven Brown, Björn Merker (2001). The Origins of Music. Cambridge: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-73143-6.
- ^ Hoppál 2006: 143
- ^ Diószegi 1960: 203
- ^ a b Nattiez: 5
- ^ Deschênes 2002
- ^ Conard, NJ (2009). "A female figurine from the basal Aurignacian of Hohle Fels Cave in southwestern Germany". Nature 459 (7244): 248–52. doi:10.1038/nature07995. PMID 19444215.
- ^ Wilford, John N. (June 24, 2009). "Flutes Offer Clues to Stone-Age Music". The New York Times. Retrieved June 29, 2009.
- ^ http://www.epoc.de/artikel/999323&_z=798890
- ^ http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/s1105308.htm
- ^ Easton's Bible Dictionary, "Music", 1897
- ^ a b "A Theatre Before the World: Performance History at the Intersection of Hebrew, Greek, and Roman Religious Processional" The Journal of Religion and Theatre, Vol. 5, No. 1, Summer 2006.
- ^ Kilmer, Crocker, Brown, Sounds from Silence, 1976, Bit Enki, Berkeley, Calif., LCC 76-16729
- ^ The Music of India, Reginald Massey, Jamila Massey
- ^ World Music: The Basics By Nidel Nidel, Richard O. Nidel (page 219)
- ^ World History: Societies of the Past By Charles Kahn (page 98)
- ^ World History: Societies of the Past By Charles Kahn (page 11)
- ^ World Music: The Basics By Nidel Nidel, Richard O. Nidel (page 10)
- ^ The Music of India By Jamila Massey, Reginald Massey (page 13)
Further reading
- Lee, Yuan-Yuan and Shen, Sinyan. (1999). Chinese Musical Instruments (Chinese Music Monograph Series). Chinese Music Society of North America Press. ISBN 1-880464-03-9
- Shen, Sinyan (1987). "Acoustics of Ancient Chinese Bells". Scientific American 256: 94.
- Merker, Brown, Steven, eds. (2000). The Origins of Music. The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-23206-5.
- Reese, Gustave (1954). Music in the Renaissance. New York, W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-09530-4.
- Bangayan, Phil, Bonet, Giselle and Ghosemajumder, Shuman (2002) Digital Music Distribution (History of the Recorded Music Industry), MIT Sloan School of Management.
- Hoppin, Richard H. (1978). Medieval Music. New York, W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-09090-6.
- Schwartz, Elliot and Godfrey, Daniel (1993). Music Since 1945. United States, Simon & Schuster Macmillan. ISBN 0-02-873040-2
- Kilmer, Crocker, Brown, Sounds from Silence, 1976, Bit Enki, Berkeley, Calif., LCC 76-16729.
- Helmholtz, Sensations of Tone Dover.
External links
- The Dictionary of the History of Ideas see Music and Science, Music as a Demonic Art, Music as a Divine Art
- Edinburgh University Collection of Historic Musical Instruments
- Essentials of Music Classical Music eras, composers, glossary from Sony Music Entertainment
- Glossary of Musical Instruments & Styles and Quotes from OddMusic.com
- Historic American Sheet Music
- Lester S. Levy Sheet Music Collection popular American music, 1780–1960
- Music History Resources at GeoCities.com
- The Music History Webring
- The New Baroque and Renaissance Music Website at GeoCities.com
- National Music Museum from the University of South Dakota
- Russell Collection of Early Keyboard Instruments from the University of Edinburgh
- Tim Gracyk's Phonographs and Old Records
- U.S. popular music timeline
|
||
Music is such a big part of my life, I'm actually currently studying it at a University. So this was incredibly interesting to learn about music's history and how it's transformed though the different eras. Part of me wishes that we knew what music sounded like before notation was developed, but at least we know about the old instruments!
ReplyDeletehttp://www.asianclassical.com
https://hindustaniclassicalmusicindia.blogspot.com
ReplyDelete